1.Introduction
Definition:
Bureaucratic Sociology
work with a detailed, planned division of labor,governed by procedures that insulate scientists from their objects of investigation.
Craft Sociology
guide by a congnitive map, or theory, which shapes even as it is reshaped by interaction of participant and observer.
Three goal of author
First goal
To explicate reflexive science as an ideal typical counterpart to positive science.
reason:
Second goal
To argue that sociology's distinction - its disciplinary calling in the information age - lies in rejectiong scientific monothesim in favor of a duality of scientific model that portends a mutually enriching, reciprocal engagement of positive and reflexive science.
reason:
Third goal
To show how the limitations of science expose the limitation of the world.
reason:
2.Postive science and survey research
2.1 What's the postivism?
Positivism was intended to replace metaphysical thinking with the search for empirically founded laws of society.And sociology was the last of the disciplines to enter the kingdom of positivism.
實證主義企圖以經驗法則為研究基礎所發現的"社會定律"（laws of society）來取代形而上學的想法，而社會學則是最後一個用來進入實證主義王國的方法。
註釋：
- "Discipline is a method of training your mind or body or of controlling your behaviour"
- "形而上學是指通過理性的推理和邏輯研究，不能直接通過感知所得到的問題。" 出處：維基百科 - 形而上學
Positivism would rule over the unruly, creating oder and progress out of chaos.
實證主義統計難以駕馭的混亂並創造秩序與進步
Postivism presums that scientists are incommensurable with, irreducible to, and unaffected by the objects they seek to represent.In short, scientists are presumed to he ouside the world they study.
實證主義假定科學家之間是完全不同，無法化約，並且不被他們所追求要呈現的目標所影響。換言之，科學家被假定會在他們所研究的世界之外。
2.2 4Rs
Positivism usefully encoded in Jack Kat's four regulatory principles,the 4Rs:
- 1. Avoid Reactivity
- 2. Face the porblem of Reliability
- 3. Must be Replicable by another oberver
- 4. Must be Representative of the population of data.
2.3 4Ss
The 4Rs are executed, but always imperfectly, through the 4Ss.
- 1. Stimulus-response ←→ Avoid Reactivity
the survey interview aspires to be an external stimulus, designedt o evoke an unambiguourse sponse.
But this stimulus-respoins usen dermined by the context of the interviewit self,the age,g ender,and race of the interviewert, he place of the interview, and the order of the questions.
- 2. Standardized ←→ Face the porblem of Reliability
To assure reliability, the interview schedule is standardized.
But one can never standardize respondent who inevitably bring to the interview diverse understandings of the very questions and theire embedded concepts.
- 3. Stabilized ←→ Must be Replicable by another oberver
Replicability presumes that external conditions can be stabllized from one time and place to another.
But that, too, is impossible beacause of external field effect that ensnare the interview.
- 4. Sample ←→ Must be Representative of the population of data.
representativeness is assured by selecting a sample of individuals and inferring characteristics of the population.This presumes that the individual is the appropriatuen it of analysisa and that situation effects can be controlled for.
The problem then becomes to define a population of situations, and then to devise a way of selecting a representative sample.
2.4 Four context effects
In pursuing the 4Rs with the 4Ss, survey researchers, therefore, face four context effect:
- interview
- respondent
- filed
- stiuation
The more sophisticated survey research becomes, the more aware we are of the limits to positive science and the more clearly we can see an alternative, reflexive science rising on the horizon.
so long as we live in localities, so long as lifeworlds retain some autonomy, context will remain and survey research, for all its interpretive ingenuity, will have to make the best of a bad job in realizing positive principles.
縱使調查研究擁有著機智的解讀，但情境仍然會被保留。在領悟實證的規則之下，必須把這件沒有希望的工作做到完美。
2.5 Conclusion
當調查研究是著去縮小現實與原則之間的差距時，科學懷疑者回應說，該藉由丟棄原則與讚揚實務來修正現實與原則之間的差距。
The denunciation(指責) of social science as "objectivism" turns into the embrace of "subjectivism"
- objectivism: the standpoint of the outsider.
- subjectivism: the standpoint of the participant.
Author suggestion
I propose an alternative model of social science that takes context as point of departure but not point of conclusion.
作者提出一種替代的社會科學模式，這種模式利用情境作為出發點，而不是當作結論。
3. Reflexive science
3.1 特點
為了使得對Reflexive Model的成見不要成為阻礙，因此作者利用實證方法學面對情境阻礙的原則來介紹reflexive model的特點，有以下四點：
1. Avoid Reactivity
If the proscription against reactivity proves impossible, then one can makea virtue of necessity, comprehending others through virtual or real participation in their lives.
如果要禁止反應被證明是不可能的，那應該反過來利用這點，去理解和包容被研究者的實際想法，並且參與他們的生活。
反身模式利用這點來假定所研究的東西是能大多數人所理解的
2. Face the porblem of Reliability
We can standardize questions but not the respondent.
We have to enter their life worlds, their time and space, studying their situations as part of a social process
3. Must be Replicable by another oberver
replicability is confounded by field effects that make it impossible to isolate the interview situation from its wider context.
reflexive science enunciates the idea of structuratlon,which implies reciprocal but asymmetrical constitution of local processes and extralocal forces forces that can be economic political,or cultural, and more or less systemic.
4. Must be Representative of the population of data
instead of inferring or testing theories by examining a sample drawn from a population,we use the empirical to elaborate, revise, or reconstruct preexisting theory, whether academic or folk.
Because we begin with theory a single case is quite sufficient for a progressive reconstruction.
3.2 Objectivity
1. Procedural objectivity
2. embedded objectivity
3.3 two question
1.what distinguishes improved or "progressive" from "degenerate" expansions of theory?
2. With which theeory do we begin?
3.4 conclusion
The trajectory of each theory is the product of its own internal logic, the external world it seeks to comprehend and equally the political discourse with other
theories.
4. The Extended case Method
4.1 4 extension in extend case method
- 1. make the observer a participant
- 2. observations over time and space
- 3. from the local to the extralocal
- 4. making the previous three extensions possible and connecting us to communities of theorists.
4.2 the challenge from the dimensions of power
- 1. we find ourselves enmeshed in networks of domination, distorting comlnunication and restricting what we can discover.
- 2. Silencing is part and parcel of the sociological reduction that is only underlined by siding with some underdogs rather than others.
- 3. To study the field of forces that imposes itself on the microprocesses from without,we have to objectify those forces, making them appear natural and permanent.
- 4. Extending theory through digesting anomalies simultaneously threatens to normalize the empirical world we study,naturalizing what is, homogenizing difference,domesticating resistance, stigmatizing tradition.
4.3 conclusion
This is not to say that positive science escapes these dimensions of power.
To the contrart, they are the usually unexamined and unproblematized pressuppositions of procedural objectivity.
We are therefore prepared to live with an imperfect science because it accentuate, rather than pretends to escape, precisely what is so "dangerous" about the world.
5. Technique,Method,And Model
5.1 intro
5.2 interviewing
The technique takes subjects out of their usual setting and subjects them to inquisition in the space and time of the interviewer.
In survey research it is deployed "positively", but it can also be deployed reflexively.
In psychoanalysis the "interview" is selfconsciously intersubjective ,highlights process through space and time, and locates the individual in historical and social milieus.
5.2.1 clinical method
5.3 participant observation
technique, participant observation is the obverse of the interview.
Participant observation is deployed reflexivelyin the extended case method,but lt can also asplre to posltlve prlnclples.
observing from the outside, developing sophisticated apparatuses of coding, bracketingc ontext to assure the conditions of replication, and inducing theory by seeking commonality across internal diversity.
5.3.1 Grounded theory
5.4 Conclusion
Sociology in the information Age
Conclusion
References
Related Papers
The Words
- ensnare:
- Project: a set of aims, ideas or activities that somebody is interested in or wants to bring to people's attention
- hierarchically:分層
- trajectory: the curved path of something that has been fired, hit or thrown into the air
- discourse: language that is studied, usually in order to see how the different parts of a text are connected
- part and parcel of sth: if something is part and parcel of an experience, it is a necessary part of that experience which cannot be avoide 出處
- inquisition: a series of questions that somebody asks you, especially when they ask them in an unpleasant way
- milieus: the social environment that you live or work in
- sophisticated: having a lot of experience of the world and knowing about fashion, culture and other things that people think are socially importan
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